The 8 Components of Nutrition

(not just 6, like most books will tell you)

Eight Components of Nutrition

Fats* (fatty acids)
Carbohydrates* (plants)
Protein* (amino acids)
Water (H2 0)
Vitamins (small molecules)
Minerals (inorganic)
Fiber (indigestible)
Phytochemicals (in plants)

The first three listed above are the (three food groups)*. There are not five food groups. The current (MyPlate.gov) website located Here (government run website) lists 5 food groups. This is incorrect. Your body recognizes only 3 food groups, not 5.

Milk is not a food group.
Vegetables are not a food group.
Fruits are not a food group.
Chocolate is not a food group.
Meat is not a food group.
Dairy is not a food group.

1. Fats* (fatty acids) (*food group)

2. Carbohydrates* (basically plant material) (*food group)

3. Protein* (amino acids) (*food group)

4. Water (H20) One drop contains 1.67 x 10²¹water molecules. The properties of water are amazing. It almost seems alive.

5. Vitamins (books list 13, but there really many more)

The downloadable (2020) complete list of vitamins document (181 pages) is Here
The above file download is a PDF file. The online view of the same document is Here
That same document may be viewed online in a book format Here
You will need Adobe Acrobat Reader on your device in order to view the document. I recommend the following site for a free download of that software. Here

6. Minerals (part of the earth, part of you)

7. Fiber (anything you eat that you can't digest

8. Phytochemicals (chemicals in plants, over 25,000)

return to the home page Here

Is Our Food Becoming Less Nutritious?

(in 7 minutes)

Click on the tabs below for more information concerning the 8 components of nutrition

Fats
Carbohydrates
Protein
Water
Vitamins
Minerals
Fiber
Phytochemicals

The Facts about Fat

There are numerous types of fat. Your body makes its own fat from taking in excess calories. Some fats are found in the foods you eat — these are called dietary fats. Dietary fat is a macronutrient that provides energy for your body. Fat is essential to your health because it supports a number of your body's functions. Some vitamins, for instance, must have fat to dissolve so that they can be used by your body. But some types of dietary fat are thought to play a role in cardiovascular disease. In addition, fats are high in calories, so you need to balance your fat intake against the other foods you eat so that you don't take in more calories than you need. If you eat more calories than you need, you will gain weight. Excess weight is linked to poor health. Research about the possible harms and benefits of dietary fat is always evolving. Current evidence suggests that the smart play is to focus on choosing healthier fats and avoiding the less healthy ones.

Unhealthy fats:

There are two main types of potentially harmful dietary fats:

Saturated fat. This type of fat comes mainly from animal sources of food, such as red meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products. Saturated fats raise high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good") cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad") cholesterol levels, which may increase your risk of cardiovascular disease.
Trans fat. This type of fat occurs naturally in some foods in small amounts. But most trans fats are made from oils through a food processing method called partial hydrogenation. These partially hydrogenated trans fats can increase total blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, but lower HDL cholesterol. This can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease.

Most fats that have a high percentage of saturated fat or that contain trans fat are solid at room temperature. Because of this, they're typically referred to as solid fats. They include beef fat, pork fat, butter, coconut oil, shortening and stick margarine.

Healthier fats:

The potentially helpful types of dietary fat are primarily unsaturated fats:

Monounsaturated fatty acids. This type of fat is found in a variety of foods and oils. Studies show that eating foods rich in monounsaturated fatty acids instead of saturated fats improves blood cholesterol levels, which can decrease your risk of heart disease and may also help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids. This type of fat is found mostly in plant-based foods and oils. Evidence shows that eating foods rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids instead of saturated fats improves blood cholesterol levels, which can decrease your risk of heart disease and may also help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes.
Omega-3 fatty acids. One type of polyunsaturated fat is made up of mainly omega-3 fatty acids and may be especially beneficial for heart health. Omega-3, found in some types of fatty fish, appears to decrease the risk of coronary artery disease. There are plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids. However, it hasn't yet been determined whether replacements for fish oil — plant-based or krill — have the same health effects as omega-3 fatty acid from fish.

Fat is associated with more calories, so what is a calorie?

(in 4 minutes)

Food for Thought

What is Fat?

(in 3 minutes)

Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids. Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and carotenoids. Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet. Both of these fatty acids are 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds. Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid (safflower, sunflower, and corn oils). Alpha-linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants, and in selected seeds, nuts, and legumes (in particular flax, rapeseed, walnut, and soy). Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Many studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega-3 fatty acids on infant development, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and various mental illnesses, such as depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia. In contrast, it is now well-established that consumption of trans fats, such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Fats that are good for you can be turned into trans fats by overcooking.

A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes. However, a number of very large studies, including the Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links. None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer, heart disease, or weight gain. The Nutrition Source, a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health, summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat: "Detailed research—much of it done at Harvard—shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn't really linked with weight or disease."

Foods made up mostly of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, such as canola oil, olive oil, safflower oil, peanut oil, sunflower oil and corn oil. Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids include salmon, tuna, trout, mackerel, sardines and herring. Plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids include flaxseed (ground), oils (canola, flaxseed, soybean), and nuts and other seeds (walnuts, butternuts and chia seeds).

Recommendations for fat intake:

Because some fats are potentially helpful and others are potentially harmful to your health, it pays to know which ones you're eating and whether you're meeting recommendations.

The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans offers the following recommendations about fat intake:

Avoid trans fat.
Limit saturated fat to less than 10 percent of calories a day.
Replace saturated fat with healthier monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.

Carbohydrates (Think of a carbohydrate as plant material rather than just sugar)

Remember, glucose is the energy molecule that all cells use. It is further broken down inside the cell into ATP which is the fuel source for the cell. The methods listed below discuss the terminology and methods for how this occurs. The storage of glucose in our body is called glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. All of the other sugar (carbohydrate) molecules mentioned are glucose molecules in nature, but several glucose molecules bonded together.

Food for Thought

What are Carbohydrates

(in 5 minutes)

This is why you should cut back on sugar

(15 minute video)

Carbohydrate metabolism is the whole of the biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.

Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from the sunlight internally. When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store the released energy in the form of high-energy molecules, such as ATP, for use in various cellular processes.

Although humans consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion breaks down complex carbohydrates into a few simple monomers (monosaccharides) for metabolism: glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose constitutes about 80% of the products and is the primary structure that is distributed to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down or stored as glycogen. In aerobic respiration, the main form of cellular respiration used by humans, glucose and oxygen are metabolized to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Most of the fructose and galactose travel to the liver, where they can be converted to glucose.

Some simple carbohydrates have their own enzymatic oxidation pathways, as do only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires the enzyme lactase to be broken into its monosaccharide components, glucose and galactose.

Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing energy released during this process as ATP and NADH. Nearly all organisms that break down glucose utilize glycolysis. Glucose regulation and product use are the primary categories in which these pathways differ between organisms. In some tissues and organisms, glycolysis is the sole method of energy production. This pathway is common to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Glycolysis consists of ten steps, split into two phases. During the first phase, it requires the breakdown of two ATP molecules. During the second phase, chemical energy from the intermediates is transferred into ATP and NADH. The breakdown of one molecule of glucose results in two molecules of pyruvate, which can be further oxidized to access more energy in later processes.

Glycolysis can be regulated at different steps of the process through feedback regulation. The step that is regulated the most is the third step. This regulation is to ensure that the body is not over-producing pyruvate molecules. The regulation also allows for the storage of glucose molecules into fatty acids. There are various enzymes that are used throughout glycolysis. The enzymes are what help upregulate, downregulate, and feedback regulate the process.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the reverse process of glycolysis. It involves the conversion of non-carbohydrate molecules into glucose. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are converted in this pathway include pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine. This process occurs when there are lowered amounts of glucose. The liver is the primary location of gluconeogenesis, but some also occurs in the kidney. The liver is the organ that breaks down the various non-carbohydrate molecules and sends them out to other organs and tissues to be used in Gluconeogenesis.

This pathway is regulated by multiple different molecules. Glucagon, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and ATP encourage gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is inhibited by AMP, ADP, and insulin. Insulin and glucagon are the two most common regulators of gluconeogenesis.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen. In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide glucose when necessary. A single glucose molecule is cleaved from a branch of glycogen, and is transformed into glucose-1-phosphate during this process. This molecule can then be converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in the glycolysis pathway.

Glucose-6-phosphate can then progress through glycolysis. Glycolysis only requires the input of one molecule of ATP when the glucose originates in glycogen. Alternatively, glucose-6-phosphate can be converted back into glucose in the liver and the kidneys, allowing it to raise blood glucose levels if necessary.

Glucagon in the liver stimulates glycogenolysis when the blood glucose is lowered, known as hypoglycemia. The glycogen in the liver can function as a backup source of glucose between meals. Adrenaline stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the skeletal muscle during exercise. In the muscles, glycogen ensures a rapidly accessible energy source for movement.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing glycogen. In humans, excess glucose is converted to glycogen via this process. Glycogen is a highly branched structure, consisting of glucose, in the form of glucose-6-phosphate, linked together. The branching of glycogen increases its solubility, and allows for a higher number of glucose molecules to be accessible for breakdown. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, skeletal muscles, and kidney.

Pentose phosphate pathway

The pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative method of oxidizing glucose. It occurs in the liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, testis, milk glands, phagocyte cells, and red blood cells. It produces products that are used in other cell processes, while reducing NADP to NADPH. This pathway is regulated through changes in the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Fructose metabolism

Fructose must undergo certain extra steps in order to enter the glycolysis pathway. Enzymes located in certain tissues can add a phosphate group to fructose. This phosphorylation creates fructose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in the glycolysis pathway that can be broken down directly in those tissues. This pathway occurs in the muscles, adipose tissue, and kidney. In the liver, enzymes produce fructose-1-phosphate, which enters the glycolysis pathway and is later cleaved into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.

Galactose metabolism

Lactose, or milk sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose. After separation from glucose, galactose travels to the liver for conversion to glucose. Galactokinase uses one molecule of ATP to phosphorylate galactose. The phosphorylated galactose is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate, and then eventually glucose-6-phosphate, which can be broken down in glycolysis.

Energy production

Many steps of carbohydrate metabolism allow the cells to access energy and store it more transiently in ATP. The cofactors NAD⁺ and FAD are sometimes reduced during this process to form NADH and FADH₂, which drive the creation of ATP in other processes. A molecule of NADH can produce 1.5–2.5 molecules of ATP, whereas a molecule of FADH₂ yields 1.5 molecules of ATP.

Energy produced during metabolism of one glucose molecule
Pathway	ATP input	ATP output	Net ATP	NADH output	FADH₂ output	ATP final yield
Glycolysis (aerobic)	2	4	2	2	0	5-7
Citric-acid cycle	0	2	2	8	2	17-25

Typically, the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and the citric-acid cycle) is usually about 30–32 molecules of ATP. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy.

Hormonal regulation

Glucoregulation is the maintenance of steady levels of glucose in the body.

Hormones released from the pancreas regulate the overall metabolism of glucose. Insulin and glucagon are the primary hormones involved in maintaining a steady level of glucose in the blood, and the release of each is controlled by the amount of nutrients currently available. The amount of insulin released in the blood and sensitivity of the cells to the insulin both determine the amount of glucose that cells break down. Increased levels of glucagon activates the enzymes that catalyze glycogenolysis, and inhibits the enzymes that catalyze glycogenesis. Conversely, glycogenesis is enhanced and glycogenolysis inhibited when there are high levels of insulin in the blood.

The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as "blood sugar") is the most important factor determining the amount of glucagon or insulin produced. The release of glucagon is precipitated by low levels of blood glucose, whereas high levels of blood glucose stimulates cells to produce insulin. Because the level of circulatory glucose is largely determined by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. In humans, insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas, fat is stored in adipose tissue cells, and glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells. Regardless of insulin levels, no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells.

Carbohydrates as storage

Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

In some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria), cellulose can be disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose.

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.

Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. During human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body.

There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein–energy malnutrition and resulting death. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine. There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids. The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in adults. There are five amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Dietary sources of protein include meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, grains, legumes, nuts and edible insects.

Protein occurs in a wide range of food. On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over 60% of the per capita supply of protein. In North America, animal-derived foods contribute about 70% of protein sources. Insects are a source of protein in many parts of the world. In parts of Africa, up to 50% of dietary protein derives from insects. It is estimated that more than 2 billion people eat insects daily.

Meat, dairy, eggs, soy, fish, whole grains, and cereals are sources of protein. Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7%, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa. Some research highlights game meat as a protein source.

Vegetarian sources of proteins include legumes, nuts, seeds and fruits. Vegetarian foods with protein concentrations greater than 7% include soybeans, lentils, kidney beans, white beans, mung beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas, lupines, wing beans, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, pecans, walnuts, cotton seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds

People eating a balanced diet do not need protein supplements.

What are Proteins and what are they made of?

(in 8 minutes)

Excess consumption

The U.S. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein concluded that there was not sufficient evidence to establish a Tolerable upper intake level, i.e., an upper limit for how much protein can be safely consumed.

When amino acids are in excess of needs, the liver takes up the amino acids and deaminates them, a process converting the nitrogen from the amino acids into ammonia, further processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle. Excretion of urea occurs via the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acid molecules can be converted into glucose and used for fuel. When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve" to compensate for daily variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs.

Excessive protein intake may increase calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. This may lead to a higher risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal circulatory system. One meta-analysis reported no adverse effects of higher protein intakes on bone density. Another meta-analysis reported a small decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with diets higher in protein, with no differences between animal and plant protein.

High protein diets have been shown to lead to an additional 1.21 kg of weight loss over a period of 3 months versus a baseline protein diet in a meta-analysis. Benefits of decreased body mass index as well as HDL cholesterol were more strongly observed in studies with only a slight increase in protein intake rather where high protein intake was classified as 45% of total energy intake. Detrimental effects to cardiovascular activity were not observed in short-term diets of 6 months or less. There is little consensus on the potentially detrimental effects to healthy individuals of a long-term high protein diet, leading to caution advisories about using high protein intake as a form of weight loss.

The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommends that men and teenage boys increase their consumption of fruits, vegetables and other under-consumed foods, and that a means of accomplishing this would be to reduce overall intake of protein foods. The 2015 - 2020 DGA report does not set a recommended limit for the intake of red and processed meat. While the report acknowledges research showing that lower intake of red and processed meat is correlated with reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases in adults, it also notes the value of nutrients provided from these meats. The recommendation is not to limit intake of meats or protein, but rather to monitor and keep within daily limits the sodium (< 2300 mg), saturated fats (less than 10% of total calories per day), and added sugars (less than 10% of total calories per day) that may be increased as a result of consumption of certain meats and proteins. While the 2015 DGA report does advise for a reduced level of consumption of red and processed meats, the 2015-2020 DGA key recommendations recommend that a variety of protein foods be consumed, including both vegetarian and non-vegetarian sources of protein.

Protein deficiency (kwashikor)

A child in Nigeria during the Biafra War suffering from kwashiorkor – one of the three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.

Protein deficiency and malnutrition (PEM) can lead to variety of ailments including mental retardation and kwashiorkor. Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the action of lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport.

PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6 million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in hospitals, is associated with disease, or is often found in the elderly.

Proteins and made up of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids that the human body uses. Proteins can fold and unfold (change shape) in order to perform more than one function. They are very complex molecules and can have thousand of amino acids strung together, using just the 20 essential amino acids, but over and over. Proteins are in most foods, including fruits and vegetables. Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells, and organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific 3D structure that determines its activity. It is estimated that the human body may contain over two million proteins, coded for by only 20,000 - 25,000 genes. The total number found in terrain biological organisms is likely to exceed ten million, but nobody knows for sure. Data is available on just over a million of them, taken mainly from information found in the over 100 genomes that have been fully sequenced.

Imagine this. Water is magical. It almost seems alive. Water has memory. Don't forget the 50 point bonus video and quiz on water memory Here It is a fascinating video. Let's use the volume of a water drop that is used by the medical and scientific community. The accepted average volume of a drop of water is exactly 0.05 mL (20 drops per milliliter). It turns out there are over 1.5 sextillion molecules in a drop of water and more than 5 sextillion atoms per droplet. Water is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. "Water" is the name of the liquid state of H2O at standard ambient temperature and pressure. It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds are formed from suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor. Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.

The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters (0.22 and 1.54 imp gal; 0.26 and 1.85 U.S. gal) of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration, including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.

Healthy kidneys can excrete 0.8 to 1 liter of water per hour, but stress such as exercise can reduce this amount. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal. The popular claim that "a person should consume eight glasses of water per day" seems to have no real basis in science. Studies have shown that extra water intake, especially up to 500 milliliters (18 imp fl oz; 17 U.S. fl oz) at mealtime was conducive to weight loss. Adequate fluid intake is helpful in preventing constipation.

Water is a mystery?

(in 5 minutes)

Water has Memory (music, words and thoughts)

(in 4 minutes)

Water has memory (The Rice Experiment )

(in 5 minutes)

This experiment has been performed thousands of times with the same results.

Water in the universe

Band 5 ALMA receiver is an instrument specifically designed to detect water in the universe.

Much of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. The formation of stars is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.

On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor containing "140 trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire existence".

Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and that of other star systems, most other planetary systems are likely to have similar ingredients.

Water vapor

Water is present as vapor in:

Atmosphere of the Sun: in detectable trace amounts
Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere
Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%
Earth's atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface; as well as that of the Moon in trace amounts
Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%
Atmosphere of Ceres
Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%– in ices only; and that of its moon Europa
Atmosphere of Saturn – in ices only; Enceladus: 91% and Dione (exosphere)
Atmosphere of Uranus – in trace amounts below 50 bar
Atmosphere of Neptune – found in the deeper layers
Extrasolar planet atmospheres: including those of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b, Tau Boötis b, HAT-P-11b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.
Stellar atmospheres: not limited to cooler stars and even detected in giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.
Circumstellar disks: including those of more than half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri

A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules closely related chemically, i.e. vitamers) that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism, either at all or not in sufficient quantities, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second. The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients: minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, vitamin E consists of four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Some sources list fourteen vitamins, by including choline, but major health organizations list thirteen: vitamin A (as all-trans-retinol, all-trans-retinyl-esters, as well as all-trans-beta-carotene and other provitamin A carotenoids), vitamin B₁ (thiamine), vitamin B₂ (riboflavin), vitamin B₃ (niacin), vitamin B₅ (pantothenic acid), vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine), vitamin B₇ (biotin), vitamin B₉ (folic acid or folate), vitamin B₁₂ (cobalamins), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D (calciferols), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), and vitamin K (phylloquinone and menaquinones).

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Vitamin A acts as a regulator of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. Vitamin D provides a hormone-like function, regulating mineral metabolism for bones and other organs. The B complex vitamins function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them. Vitamins C and E function as antioxidants. Both deficient and excess intake of a vitamin can potentially cause clinically significant illness, although excess intake of water-soluble vitamins is less likely to do so.

Before 1935, the only source of vitamins was from food. If intake of vitamins was lacking, the result was vitamin deficiency and consequent deficiency diseases. Then, commercially produced tablets of yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C became available. This was followed in the 1950s by the mass production and marketing of vitamin supplements, including multivitamins, to prevent vitamin deficiencies in the general population. Governments mandated addition of vitamins to staple foods such as flour or milk, referred to as food fortification, to prevent deficiencies. Recommendations for folic acid supplementation during pregnancy reduced risk of infant neural tube defects.

The term vitamin is derived from the word vitamine, which was coined in 1912 by Polish biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines. When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name. All vitamins were discovered (identified) between 1913 and 1948

How do Vitamins Work

(in 4 minutes)

A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. There is an online complete list of all vitamins and substances close to vitamins located Here Vitamins include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B5.B6, B9 and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C. The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named vitamine. By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids. Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Each vitamin name (the word vitamin followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity. For example, vitamin A refers to several different chemicals. Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body. They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well. The body does not make these chemicals. They come from other places, usually food. A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time. Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin. Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others. Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins. They help people avoid those diseases. Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed. Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.

In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.

Nutrient minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms. Plants get minerals from soil. Most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the remaining elements in a human body are called "trace elements". The trace elements that have a specific biochemical function in the human body re sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, and selenium. There is a list of the minerals used by the human body Here The list of minerals that needed by the human body but have no RDA established is Here This is quite shocking to examine.

Minerals

(in 4 minutes)

Minerals Roles in biological processes

Dietary element	RDA/AI Male/Female (US) [mg]	Category	High nutrient density dietary sources	Term for deficiency	Term for excess
Potassium	4700	A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium	Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange	hypokalemia	hyperkalemia
Chlorine	2300	Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and in cellular pump functions	Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source.	hypochloremia	hyperchloremia
Sodium	1500	A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium	Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables, milk, and spinach.	hyponatremia	hypernatremia
Calcium	1000	Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone, supports synthesis and function of blood cells	Dairy products, eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.	hypocalcaemia	hypercalcaemia
Phosphorus	700	A component of bones (see apatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions	Red meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats. In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate	hypophosphatemia	hyperphosphatemia
Magnesium	420/320	Required for processing ATP and for bones	Spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado^[21]	hypomagnesemia, magnesium deficiency	hypermagnesemia
Iron	8/18	Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia	Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate	iron deficiency	iron overload disorder
Zinc	11/8	Required for several classes of enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase and zinc finger proteins	Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products	zinc deficiency	zinc toxicity
Manganese	2.3/1.8	Required co-factor for superoxide dismutase	Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee	manganese deficiency	manganism
Copper	0.9	Required co-factor for cytochrome c oxidase	Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes	copper deficiency	copper toxicity
Iodine	0.150	Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones	Seaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt	iodine deficiency / goiter	iodism Hyperthyroidism
Chromium	0.035/0.25	Involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well-defined	Broccoli, grape juice (especially red), meat, whole grain products	Chromium deficiency	Chromium toxicity
Molybdenum	0.045	Required for the functioning of xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase^[30]	Legumes, whole grains, nuts	molybdenum deficiency	molybdenum toxicity
Selenium	0.055	Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase	Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs	selenium deficiency	selenosis
Cobalt	none		Required in the synthesis of vitamin B₁₂, but because bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually considered part of vitamin B₁₂ which comes from eating animals and animal-sourced foods (eggs...)		Cobalt poisoning

Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources.

Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B₁₂) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called "biomineralization", used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusk shells.

Fiber is basically anything that you eat that you can't digest. There are three main types of fiber.

Soluble fiber – which dissolves in water – is generally fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active by-products, such as short-chain fatty acids produced in the colon by gut bacteria. Fermentable fibers are called prebiotic fibers. Examples are beta-glucans (in oats, barley, and mushrooms) and raw guar gum. An exception is psyllium, which is a soluble, viscous, nonfermented fiber. Psyllium is a bulking fiber that retains water as it moves through the digestive system, easing defecation. Soluble fiber is generally viscous and delays gastric emptying which, in humans, can result in an extended feeling of fullness. Exceptions are inulin (in onions), wheat dextrin, oligosaccharides, and resistant starches (in legumes and bananas), which are nonviscous.
Insoluble fiber – which does not dissolve in water – is inert to digestive enzymes in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Examples are wheat bran, cellulose, and lignin. Coarsely ground insoluble fiber triggers the secretion of mucus in the large intestine, providing bulking. Finely ground insoluble fiber does not have this effect and can actually have a constipating effect. Some forms of insoluble fiber, such as resistant starches, can be fermented in the colon.
Dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides and other plant components such as cellulose, resistant starch, resistant dextrins, inulin, lignins, chitins (in fungi), pectins, beta-glucans, and oligosaccharides.

Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which may or may not be fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate and metabolism of soluble fibers. Other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fermented to produce short-chain fatty acids, which are physiologically active and confer health benefits. Health benefit from dietary fiber and whole grains may include a decreased risk of death and lower rates of coronary heart disease, colon cancer, and type 2 diabetes.

Food sources of dietary fiber have traditionally been divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying amounts, according to the plant's characteristics of viscosity and fermentability. Advantages of consuming fiber depend upon which type of fiber is consumed and which benefits may result in the gastrointestinal system. Bulking fibers – such as cellulose, hemicellulose and psyllium – absorb and hold water, promoting regularity. Viscous fibers – such as beta-glucan and psyllium – thicken the fecal mass. Fermentable fibers – such as resistant starch and inulin – feed the bacteria and microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized to yield short-chain fatty acids, which have diverse roles in gastrointestinal health.

Plant sources of fiber

Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain a fair amount of fiber.

Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:

legumes (peas, soybeans, lupins and other beans)
oats, rye, chia, and barley
some fruits (including figs, avocados, plums, prunes, berries, ripe bananas, and the skin of apples, quinces and pears)
certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of these are sources of insoluble fiber also)
psyllium seed husks (a mucilage soluble fiber) and flax seeds
nuts, with almonds being the highest in dietary fiber

Sources of insoluble fiber include:

whole grain foods
wheat and corn bran
legumes such as beans and peas
nuts and seeds
potato skins
lignans
vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgette), celery, and nopal
some fruits including avocado, and unripe bananas
the skins of some fruits, including kiwifruit, grapes and tomatoes

How food is digested

(in 5 minutes)

The Gut Microbes

(Yes, these microbes are considered an organ. That organ weighs between 5 - 10 lbs.)

(12 minutes in length)

Many molecules that are considered to be "dietary fiber" are so because humans lack the necessary enzymes to split the glycosidic bond and they reach the large intestine. Many foods contain varying types of dietary fibers, all of which contribute to health in different ways.

Dietary fibers make three primary contributions: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Different fibers have different effects, suggesting that a variety of dietary fibers contribute to overall health. Some fibers contribute through one primary mechanism. For instance, cellulose and wheat bran provide excellent bulking effects, but are minimally fermented. Alternatively, many dietary fibers can contribute to health through more than one of these mechanisms. For instance, psyllium provides bulking as well as viscosity.

Bulking fibers can be soluble (e.g. psyllium) or insoluble (e.g. cellulose and hemicellulose). They absorb water and can significantly increase stool weight and regularity. Most bulking fibers are not fermented or are minimally fermented throughout the intestinal tract.

Viscous fibers thicken the contents of the intestinal tract and may attenuate the absorption of sugar, reduce sugar response after eating, and reduce lipid absorption (notably shown with cholesterol absorption). Their use in food formulations is often limited to low levels, due to their viscosity and thickening effects. Some viscous fibers may also be partially or fully fermented within the intestinal tract (guar gum, beta-glucan, glucomannan and pectins), but some viscous fibers are minimally or not fermented (modified cellulose such as methylcellulose and psyllium).

Fermentable fibers are consumed by the microbiota within the large intestines, mildly increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Resistant starch, inulin, fructooligosaccharide and galactooligosaccharide are dietary fibers which are fully fermented. These include insoluble as well as soluble fibers. This fermentation influences the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which affect digestive function and lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system, inflammation and more.

Dietary fibers can change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and can change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed through bulking and viscosity. Some types of soluble fibers bind to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to re-enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood from the actions of cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of cholesterol.

Insoluble fiber is associated with reduced risk of diabetes, but the mechanism by which this is achieved is unknown. One type of insoluble dietary fiber, resistant starch, may increase insulin sensitivity in healthy people, in type 2 diabetics, and in individuals with insulin resistance, possibly contributing to reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.

Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient, dietary fiber has importance in the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.

Effects of Fiber
Increases food volume without increasing caloric content to the same extent as digestible carbohydrates, providing satiety which may reduce appetite.
Attracts water and forms a viscous gel during digestion, slowing the emptying of the stomach, shortening intestinal transit time, shielding carbohydrates from enzymes, and delaying absorption of glucose, which lowers variance in blood sugar levels
Lowers total and LDL cholesterol, which may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease
Regulates blood sugar, which may reduce glucose and insulin levels in diabetic patients and may lower risk of diabetes
Speeds the passage of foods through the digestive system, which facilitates regular defecation
Adds bulk to the stool, which alleviates constipation
Balances intestinal pHand stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids

Phytochemicals are chemicals made in plants.

Eating a Plant Based Diet

(16 minutes)

Phytochemical also called phytonutrients What are they?

(in less than 2 minutes)

Phytochemicals and phytonutrients are chemical compounds produced by plants, generally to help them thrive or thwart competitors, predators, or pathogens. The name comes from Greek φυτόν (phyton), meaning 'plant'. Some phytochemicals have been used as poisons and others as traditional medicine. As a term, phytochemicals is generally used to describe plant compounds that are under research with unestablished effects on health and are not scientifically defined as essential nutrients. Regulatory agencies governing food labeling in Europe and the United States have provided guidance for industry limiting or preventing health claims about phytochemicals on food product or nutrition labels. Phytochemicals are chemicals of plant origin. Phytochemicals (from Greek phyto, meaning "plant") are chemicals produced by plants through primary or secondary metabolism. They generally have biological activity in the plant host and play a role in plant growth or defense against competitors, pathogens, or predators. generally are regarded as research compounds rather than essential nutrients because proof of their possible health effects has not been established yet. Phytochemicals under research can be classified into major categories, such as carotenoids and polyphenols, which include phenolic acids, flavonoids, and stilbenes/lignans. Flavonoids can be further divided into groups based on their similar chemical structure, such as anthocyanins, flavones, flavanones, and isoflavones, and flavanols. Flavanols further are classified as catechins, epicatechins, and proanthocyanidins. In total, there has been over 25,000 phytochemicals discovered and in most cases, these phytochemicals are concentrated in colorful parts of the plants like fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and whole grains, etc. Phyto chemists study phytochemicals by first extracting and isolating compounds from the origin plant, followed by defining their structure or testing in laboratory model systems, such as cell cultures, in vitro experiments, or in vivo studies using laboratory animals. Challenges in that field include isolating specific compounds and determining their structures, which are often complex, and identifying what specific phytochemical is primarily responsible for any given biological activity. Phytochemicals are very important in fighting and killing cancer cells.

This image shows phytochemicals (various colors) attaching themselves to and fighting cancer cells. The best website for understanding the class of phytochemicals is HERE

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